I. Name

The Hebrew title of this book is Mishle Shelomoh, "Proverbs of Solomon." It belongs to what is called the Hhokhma or wisdom literature, because it is largely given to philosophical speculation on the great questions which agitated the Jewish mind.

The word Mashal, "proverb," means properly, "A representation, i.e., a statement not resting solely on a single fact, but standing for or representing other similar facts." "The Mashal is by usage limited almost entirely to observations relative to human life and character, and is expressed commonly in a short, pointed form." (Driver, Int. 6th Ed., p. 394.) This literature embodies the practical ethics of the times. Cheyne calls these writers the humanists and realists of their times. (Job and Solomon, p. 119.) They were not opposed to the prophets but moved in a different sphere, the practical affairs of daily life.

They embodied the result of their study in short pithy sayings which the people could easily grasp, putting them in similitudes, riddles, dark sayings and parables. The Book of Proverbs is the best specimen of this literature.

II. Analysis

The Book is divided into seven parts with an introductory statement at the head of each part except three and seven.

1. The Praise of Wisdom. Chs. 1-9.

(1) Introduction. 1:1-6. The general purpose of the Book showing what wisdom will secure. Verse 7 may be considered the text of the entire book.

(2) Chs. 1:7 to 9:18 contain a series of discourses about wisdom, in fifteen sections (Delitzsch), each one treating of some quality of wisdom. The poetical structure is highly developed, and the personification of wisdom is one of the most beautiful conceptions of Hebrew literature.

2. The Proverbs of Solomon. Chs. 10:1 to 22:16. This section contains moral teachings and maxims of worldly prudence. The separate proverbs are marked by great regularity of form. Each proverb is composed of two antithetic members. The tone is usually bright and cheerful.

3. Words of the Wise. Chs. 22:17 to 24:34. These relate to justice, intemperance and evil associations. They are much freer in construction than those of the second section, the thought generally extending over four members and often more, that on wine drinking, 23:29-35, forming a complete poem.

4. Proverbs copied by Hezekiah's men. Chs. 25 to 29. This section has a strong likeness in form to section two, but with a tendency to extend the distich so as to embrace several members. The tone of the teaching is less cheerful and deals with the harsher phases of life. There is also much repetition of thought and even of expression.

5. The Words of Agur. Ch. 30. These "Words" are quite philosophical and the manner of expression peculiar. After a prayer, 7-9, we find nine groups of proverbs in regard to human conduct, each group being composed of four specifications. If we may read the word "Massa" as a proper name, and regard it as the country over which Agur was king, thus throwing the proverbs outside of Jewish thought, the peculiarities of expression might be easily explained. But this is not certain.

6. The Words of King Lemuel. Ch. 31:1-9. The title should perhaps read, "The Words of Lemuel, King of Massa." These are said to have been taught him by his mother, and consist of pithy maxims in regard to the bad effects of sensuality and intemperance.

7. In 31:10-31 we have the description of the virtuous or thrifty woman, in which the verses begin with the letters of the Hebrew alphabet in their order.

III. Age and Authorship

From this general outline of the contents it is plain that the book is of compo-site origin. Parts of it are ascribed to Solomon, other parts to other authors.

Sections 1, 2 and 4 are directly assigned to Solomon, unless the title of Section 1 be regarded as a heading given to the entire collection by the final editor. The general opinion is that Section 2 is the personal work of Solomon and forms the basis around which the entire collection was gathered. This breathes the atmosphere of the best thought and the greatest prosperity of the nation. Delitzsch locates the formal collection of this section in the reign of Jehoshaphat, about a century after Solomon, but there is no good reason why we should not trace the authorship of the proverbs in it back directly to Solomon himself. His fitness for such work may be inferred from 1 Kings 4:32.

To this original nucleus Hezekiah's men added Chs. 25 to 29, ascribing them to Solomon. The difference in thought and language between this section and Chs. 10 to 24 is thought by many to indicate a later origin. In Chs. 10-24 the work is very symmetrical, the parallelism very regular, the tone cheerful and the royal position honored without question. In Chs. 25 to 29 the formation is quite irregular, the proverbs are not confined to two members but extend to four, five, or even ten members, the evidences are numerous that the country is less prosperous and the king less honored. But all these conditions may be due to the unfortunate decay of Solomon's later life. It is not necessary to show that Solomon wrote every proverb of the section. He originated the form of expression, and others, with less artistic skill and literary finish, followed his models as closely as they were able.

As for the other sections of the book, Chs. 1 to 9, which form a general introduction, almost certainly belong to Solomon, although there is room for the suggestion that the style, which differs somewhat from the portions which are traced to Solomon, indicates that it may have been revised by the one who finally completed the collection. Sections 3, 5, 6 and 7 furnish no clue to their authorship beyond what the text supplies.

Much difference of opinion exists as to the time when the final collection was made. Kautzsch, The Literature of the Old Testament, p. 153, and Cheyne, Founders of Old Testament Criticism, p. 340, place it after the exile; Delitzsch, in the reign of Jehoshaphat, a century after Solomon; Ewald, in the beginning of the eighth century B. C. The earlier dates seem more likely to be correct.

LITERATURE

Commentaries of Lange, Toy Keil, Stuart, Delitzsch. Cheyne, Job and Solomon; Introductions of Keil and Driver; "Proverbs" in Bible Dictionaries of Smith and Hastings.