I. Name

The Hebrew name of the book is Sepher Tehillim, "Book of Praises," frequently shortened to Tehillim or Tillim, "Praises." In a note at the end of Psalm 72 they are called Tephilloth, "Prayers." See also titles of Ps. 17, 86, 90, 102. The Septuagint name of the book is Psalmoi, "Psalms,' ' because they were to be sung with an instrumental accompaniment. In Luke 20:42 and Acts 1:20 it is called "The Book of Psalms." In the early Christian church it is called "The Psalter." Its place in the Jewish service corresponds to the hymn book in our Protestant churches. Herder well calls it "The Hymn Book for all Time," for it is more comprehensive than any modern collection designed for religious service.

II. Its Position in the Old Testament

In most German manuscripts and in our printed Hebrew Bibles the Psalms occupy the first place in the third section, the Kethubim, into which the Hebrew Bible is divided. In Spanish manuscripts generally, and in Masoretic lists, it follows Chronicles. In one list the Psalms follow Job, which stands first in this third section, and this order is followed in the Septuagint, the Vulgate and our English Bible. According to the Babylonian Talmud the order is Ruth, Psalms, Job, etc., Ruth being regarded as a sort of prelude to the Psalms because David was descended from Ruth. The order of the Hebrew Bible is the most natural on account of the prominence of the Psalms.

III. Structure of the Book

1. In the Hebrew, as in our English Bible, there are 150 Psalms. The Septuagint and Syriac have 151, but the last is apocryphal. But in making up the number the Septuagint differs from the Syriac, and both differ from the Hebrew. The Septuagint and the Vulgate join together Psalms 9 and 10, also 114 and 115, and then divide 116 and 147. The Syriac joins Psalms 114 and 115, and divides 147. The Hebrew frequently differs from the English in numbering the verses of a Psalm. The Hebrew regards the superscription as the first verse while the English never so regards it.

2. The Book of Psalms is, in Hebrew, as in our Revised Version, divided into five books, each having its own characteristics. In this there is an evident attempt to conform to the five books of the Pentateuch. Jewish tradition says that as Moses gave them the five books of the Pentateuch, so David gave them the five books of Psalms. These books are divided as follows:

First Book, Psalms 1 to 41; Second Book, Psalms 42 to 72; Third Book, Psalms 73 to 89; Fourth Book, Psalms 90 to 106; Fifth Book, Psalms 107 to 150.

3. Each book ends with a suitable doxology, except that the last Psalm of the entire collection forms a sort of amplified doxology for the entire series.

4. The structure of the Book of Psalms as it now stands suggests the idea that at first it consisted only of the Psalms now comprising the first book and that the other books were afterward added as the number of Psalms available for worship increased.

The individuality of each book is easily recognized. The difference in the divine name employed in the different parts shows that a different thought has controlled each collection. Thus, in the First Book the name Jehovah is used 272 times, while Elohim occurs only 15 times. In the Second Book we find the opposite, for there Jehovah is used only 30 times and Elohim 164 times. In the Third Book each name is used nearly the same number of times, while in the fourth Jehovah only is used, as it is also in the Fifth Book except in Psalms 108 and 144.

Groups of Psalms written by one author or having a common purpose are found in each book. In the First Book all the Psalms are ascribed to David, except four, I, 2, 10, and 33, which are anonymous. In the Second Book we have a series by "the Sons of Korah." In the Third Book a series by Asaph, and in the Fifth Book are "The Songs of Degrees, or Ascents." Kirkpatrick says (The Psalms, Introd. lviii), "Speaking broadly and generally, the Psalms of the First Division are personal, those of the Second national, those of the Third liturgical,

From a careful study of the contents of these different books we may draw the general conclusion that the First Book was prepared soon after the death of David, possibly by Solomon who took such an interest in the temple service. The Second and Third Books point to the time of Hezekiah or Josiah, 2 Chron. 29:30. The Fourth and Fifth Books plainly reveal a post-exilian origin, and may be referred to the time of Ezra and Nehemiah. But this conclusion must be received with some exceptions for there are Psalms in one collection which manifestly belong to the period assigned to another, and possibly some are even later than the time of Ezra and Nehemiah. While there is an evident general adherence to chronological order there is also a manifest desire to group similar Psalms, which has caused a deviation from that order.

IV. The Inscriptions

One hundred and sixteen of the Psalms have some sort of an inscription, pointing out their author, or the place or manner of their use, while the remaining thirty-four are without any mark by which we can locate them. The Jews call the latter "Orphan Psalms." While these inscriptions are very old and in some cases may be genuine, they cannot be relied upon as a part of the original Psalm, nor are they always correct. These inscriptions may be classified as follows:

1. Those relating to authorship. In Hebrew we find the preposition Lamed, "Belonging to," prefixed to the name of an author as an indication of authorship. Ps, 3. Thus Lamed David or Asaph would indicate that David or Asaph was the author. In this way we find 73 Psalms assigned to David; 24 to the famous musicians of David who had charge of the temple music (viz., 12 to Asaph, 11 to the sons of Korah, and 1 to Ethan); 2 to Solomon; 1 to Moses, and 1 to Heman. In the Talmud, Psalm 92 is assigned to Adam, Psalm no to Melchisedek, and Ethan is said to be another name for Abraham.

2. Those which tell the circumstances under which the Psalm was written. Nearly all these relate to well-known historical events. Ps. 54 refers to 1 Sam. 23:19. Ps. 59 rests on 1 Sam. 19. It is worthy of note that this class of inscriptions is limited to those Psalms which are ascribed to David and Asaph.

3. Those which give directions in regard to the use to be made of them. Some of them are evidently liturgical. Thus, Lamnatstseahh, "For the Precentor," which occurs in 55 Psalms, means that the Psalm was to go to the leader of the singers, who would see to its musical rendering in the worship. Other similar inscriptions are Mizmor, "A song to be sung with a musical accompaniment," found in 57 Psalms, mostly ascribed to David; Maskil, "A skillfully prepared or didactic song," or one requiring careful attention in the rendering.

4. Other inscriptions designate the instruments to be employed, as Nehiloth, "To or with the flute," Ps. 5. Neginoth, "With stringed instruments," Ps. 4.

5. Still others refer to the kind of music appropriate to the Psalm, e. g., Ps. 22, Ayyeleth Hashshahhar, "Upon the hind of the dawn," means that the Psalm is to be rendered to the tune known by that name.

6. Ps. 120-134 have the inscription "Song of Degrees," or as the Revised Version has it, "Song of Ascents." The words have been variously explained. Delitzsch finds the key in the rhythmical structure of the Psalm, the thought ascending verse by verse from the beginning to the end. But this is not true of all of them, and is by no means peculiar to these Psalms, as the same feature may be found in other Psalms. Some Jewish writers refer it to the fifteen steps leading from the court of the men to that of the women, upon which the singers stood singing one Psalm on each step as they w^ent up the ascent. By others the term is explained by saying these Psalms were sung by the exiles as they went up from Babylon after their long captivity was ended, Ezra 7:9. They are admirably adapted for such service. From the fact that the word "ascents" is in the plural, others think it refers to the annual pilgrimages which the devout Jew made to Jerusalem to observe the great feasts, Isa. 30:29. Such a historical basis gives a fine setting to the Psalms, and may be accepted as the most probable solution.

7. To these musical terms, although it is not strictly speaking an inscription, we may add the word Selah, which occurs frequently in the body of the Psalm, and has greatly perplexed the critics. By the older Hebrew writers it is regarded as equivalent to "Eternity." Gesenius would render it "Pause," used like the word "Rest" in our modern tunes, indicating that here there is to be a rest in the singing, or in the use of instruments, or both. The Septuagint takes the opposite view and understands it to mean that here there is to be a louder, loftier strain, an interlude in which the instruments alone are to be used to their fullest capacity. No one would venture to be very positive in regard to the use of a word so variously construed, but the latter suggestion seems best to explain its use.

In regard to all these inscriptions there is much uncertainty attending them, owing to the enigmatical character of the terms employed. While unquestionably very ancient they cannot be traced back to the time when the Psalm was written. That the author of a Psalm might prefix his name to it or give some instruction as to its musical rendering does not seem improbable, but there is nothing to show that such was the custom. We are therefore left largely to internal evidence, which is an exceedingly uncertain foundation for assertion. While therefore we admit that these inscriptions are very old and as such entitled to the greatest respect, yet they must be tested as to their historical accuracy before they are accepted. Fortunately it is a question of comparatively little importance since the contents and not the writer must determine the value of the production.

V. Authorship

The question in regard to the authorship of the Psalms is one of the most perplexing connected with our study and the most diverse answers have been given. If we may trust the inscriptions, the authorship is fixed for a large majority of them and the age 6i the others might be determined largely by comparing them with those Psalms the authorship of which is given. But we cannot show positively that the inscriptions were added by the original writers of the Psalms. Indeed, while they are very ancient, it is almost certain that some of them, at least, are not a part of the original Psalm. If we attempt to fix the authorship by internal evidence we are at once involved in almost hopeless difificulty. We do not know enough about the details of the life of David, for example, to say that the references in a certain Psalm must refer only to events in his life or could not possibly refer to him. The local conditions would give to an event a very different color from our conception of it when the centuries have stripped it of its surroundings.

The modern tendency is to insist positively on such internal identification before admitting the correctness of the inscription. The extreme position of Wellhausen, Cheyne, Duhm and others who follow this school of thought, is seen in the declaration of Wellhausen: "The question is not whether it (the Psalter) contains any post-exilic Psalms, but whether it contains any pre-exilic Psalms." Professor Cheyne, in his Bampton Lectures, maintains that with the possible exception of a few verses in Psalm 18 the entire Psalter is postexilic. Duhm goes still further from the traditional view and declares that most if not all of the Psalter is a product of the Maccabean troubles. (B. C. 178-70.)

The historical evidence seems effectually to refute such an extreme position. The post-exilic writers refer to the collection as one in familiar use, often quoting directly or indirectly from it; it is evidently older than the Septuagint translation; such productions were common, as seen from Jer. 33:11 where Jeremiah quotes from Psalm 106:1; Isa. 30:29 and, earlier still, Amos 5:23 and 8:10 refer to songs for religious purposes; the antiquity of the inscriptions given to many Psalms shows a strong probability, if it does not furnish absolute proof, of David's authorship; and there is much about the man which would lead us to expect such work from him. If, as some assert, the internal evidence is sometimes unfavorable to David, in very many other instances it seems almost impossible to find any other application. Instances of this are so numerous and so unique as to need no specification. It is David, and not some one representing him, who cries out in his distress, who shouts forth his joy or tells in plaintive strains the story of his own temptation, sin and restoration. To say that some one, hundreds of years later, is here simulating the experience of David is a most unlikely assumption. David had just such experiences and he was abundantly able to describe them in penitential song or in magnificent odes where the imagery conforms to the grandeur of the thought. In his boyhood he appears before Saul as a skillful musician, 1 Sam. 16:17ff. From 2 Sam. 1:17 and 22:1 we discover his ability as a poet. From Amos 6:5 we learn how the memory of his poetical melodies lingered long among the people.

If, as the external testimony shows and as most critics agree, the eighteenth Psalm was written by David there is no inherent reason why he should not have written many more. In this eighteenth Psalm there is a high degree of poetic skill, a deep insight into spiritual matters, a profound conception of the divine character, both in its sterner and more merciful qualities, such as we find pervading that large part of the Psalter ascribed to David. If one has no theory to uphold the evidence for David's authorship of those ascribed to him seems to stand on an equality with the evidence for his authorship of the eighteenth.

Some of the inscriptions are manifestly incorrect while many Psalms have no inscription. That these should be of later origin we may readily admit. With the growing experience of both personal and national life poems devoted to the new conditions would find expression and naturally be added to the older collections.

While then we confess to the great uncertainty surrounding the origin of many of the Psalms we find no valid reason for refusing to believe that the tradition expressed in the inscriptions is substantially correct. That heroic age and its matchless leader find a fit expression in this collection of Psalms and this cannot be said so appropriately of any other period of Jewish history.

VI. The Teachings of the Psalms

1. The Psalms cover the entire field of ethical thought. God, man, nature, providence, good and evil, the deep problems of sin and suffering, righteousness and peace with God, the origin and destiny of the individual and of the nation, all these and many another question are here discussed with a breadth of vision and a loftiness of conception which give to their teaching a universal application. In all ages men have been content to clothe their most profound convictions in the language here employed.

2. Much exception has been taken to what are called the Imprecatory Psalms. In Psalms like 58, 69, 137, in the midst of the sweetest meditations on the love of God and absolute trust in Him, we find the most fearful imprecations, anathemas which leave no good to be hoped for and most terrible suffering to be endured, 69:22-28. Even children are not spared, 137:9. Certainly they cannot be justified as personal maledictions against evil-doers. Nor is it enough to say they are a product of the Old Dispensation as contrasted with the New, although that may somewhat relieve the strain, for they did not have the strong light we enjoy on these moral questions. If we may accept the idea that in the Psalms we are to consider the writer as expressing not his own personal thoughts but as representing the community, the nation, the Israelitish church, then they represent the intense yearning zeal for God which would sweep away every barrier to the coming of His kingdom, and which regards persistent, willful opposition to God as really deserving absolute destruction. The Psalmists, like the Prophets, had a most vivid sense of the wickedness of such stubborn hatred, manifesting itself in continual and intentional wrong-doing, and felt that it deserved exemplary and condign punishment. All this is far removed from thoughts of personal vengeance. They have no desire to become the instruments of such punishment. The thought is, Let God arise and vindicate His truth and protect His own. In proportion as the heart rises up to God, as the human spirit is conformed to the divine spirit, as all personal passion and prejudice are removed and sin stands out in its hateful perversity there comes a feeling that such wickedness ought not to go unpunished, that the cause of truth demands that vengeance overtake the wrong-doer. There is such a thing as inspired passion for justice, which cannot be ignored.

3. The Messianic element in the Psalms appears in many forms. He is the King, crowned by Jehovah Himself, Ps. 2, that all nations may be subdued unto God. His triumph is celebrated, Ps. 18. His noble, beneficent character is eulogized, Pss. 45 and 72. He is a priest uniting in Himself royal and priestly functions, Ps. no. He has universal dominion, Pss. 22 and 45. He triumphs through suffering and death, Pss. 22 and 6g. Of this the suffering of David often becomes typical. Thus the lesson of Messiahship is slowly unfolded. The nation is made familiar with the thought of a King whose prowess is invincible and a Priest whose personal sacrifice avails for the rescue of His people. The true light shone on them, not in the full-orbed glory which the Sun of Righteousness casts around us, but in the growing beauty and invigorating freshness of the early morning when the dawn chases the night away.

4. Plow adequately and grandly do these Psalms express the highest aspirations of humanity! If they seem optimistic in regard to the final triumph of righteousness it is an optimism which has been the inspiration of every heroic effort to reach a higher and nobler life. Men seeking after God, believing that in fellowship with Him is their true life, have always found in these productions words which have supported them in the severest trials and urged them to their grandest triumphs.

LITERATURE

Commentaries: Kirkpatrick, Delitzsch, Perowne. Hengstenberg's Christology; Isaac Taylor, The Spirit of Hebrew Poetry; Lowth, Sacred Poetry of the Hebrews; Alexander, The Witness of the Psalms to Christ and Christianity; Cheyne, Origin and Religious Contents of the Psalter; Margoliouth, Lines of Defense of the Biblical Revelation, page 182; DeWitt, The Psalms, a New Translation (Metrical) with Introduction and Notes; James Robertson, The Poetry and Religion of the Psalms; Chambers, The Psalter, A Witness to the Divine Origin of the Bible; Spurgeon, Treasury of David; Introductions of Driver and Keil; article "Psalms" in Bible Dictionaries of Smith and Hastings.