The First Punic War (264 to 241 BC) was the first of
three major wars fought between Carthage and the
Roman Republic. For 23 years, the two powers
struggled for supremacy in the western Mediterranean
Sea. Carthage, located in Africa in what is today
Tunisia, was the dominant western mediterranean
power at the beginning of the conflicts. Eventually,
Rome emerged the victor, imposing strict treaty
conditions and heavy financial penalties against
Carthage.
The series of wars between Rome and Carthage were
known to the Romans as the "Punic Wars" because of
the Latin name for the Carthaginians: Punici,
derived from Phoenici, referring to the
Carthaginians' Phoenician ancestry.
Background
In the middle of the 3rd century BC the power of
Rome was growing. Following centuries of internal
rebellions and disturbances, the whole of the
Italian peninsula was tightly secured under Roman
hands. All enemies — such as the Latin league and
the Samnites — had been overcome and the invasion of
Pyrrhus of Epirus had been repelled. Romans had
enormous confidence in their political system and
military power.
Across the Tyrrhenian Sea and the Strait of Sicily,
Carthage was already the dominant naval and
commercial power, controlling most of the
Mediterranean maritime trade routes. Originally a
Phoenician colony, the city, located in Africa in
what is today Tunisia, had become the center of a
wide empire reaching along the North African coast
as well as covering parts of the Iberian
peninsula[citation needed] (now Spain and Portugal)
in Europe. The conflict began after both Rome and
Carthage intervened with an internal power struggle
in Sicily.
Beginning
In 288 BC the Mamertines -- a group of Italian
(Campanian) mercenaries originally hired by
Agathocles of Syracuse from 317 to 289 BCE --
occupied the city of Messana -- modern Messina-- in
the northeastern tip of Sicily, killing all the men
and taking the women as their wives. At the same
time a group Roman troops made up of Campanian
"citizens without the vote" also seized control of
Rhegium, which lies across the straits in Italy. In
270 BCE the Romans regained control of Rhegium and
severly punished the survivors of the revolt. In
Sicily the Mamertines ravaged the countryside and
collided with the expanding regional empire of the
independent city of Syracuse. Hiero II, tyrant of
Syracuse, defeated the Mamertines near Mylae on the
Longanus River and besieged Messina. Following the
defeat at the river Longanus the Mamertines
appealled to both Rome and Carthage for assistance,
and acting first the Carthaginians approached Hiero
to take no further action and convinced the
Mamertines to accept a Carthaginian garrison in
Messana. Either uphappy with the prospect of a
Carthaginian garrison, or convinced that the recent
alliance between Rome and Carthage against Pyrrhus
reflected cordial relations between the two, the
Mamertines petitioned Rome for an alliance, hoping
for more reliable protection. At first, the Romans
did not wish to come to the aid of soldiers who had
unjustly stolen a city from its rightful possessors,
and were still recovering from the insurrection of
Campanian troops at (Rhegium, 271). Most likely
unwilling to see Carthaginian power spread further
over Sicily and get too close to Italy, Rome
responded by entering into an alliance with the
Mamertines. In 264 BC, Roman troops were deployed to
Sicily (the first time a Roman army acted outside
the Italian peninsula). Under the command of Appius
Claudius Caudex two Roman legions were transported
across the straits on pentekonters (ships with 25
oars on each side) and triremes borrowed from allies
in Southern Italy. Following minor skirmishes,
during which Hiero withdrew back to Syracuse, the
Romans sent both consuls and two more legions to
Sicily in the years 263 and 262 BC. The arrival of
these troops influenced many towns to defect to the
Roman side and eventually even Hiero decided to
conclude a peace with the Romans. Under the initial
15 year agreement Syracuse was allowed to stay
independent under the rule of Hiero but was forced
to pay an indemnity of 100 talents (according to the
historian Polybios).Soon enough the only parties in
the dispute were Rome and Carthage and the conflict
evolved into a struggle for the possession of
Sicily.
Land warfare
Sicily is a semi-hilly island, with geographical
obstacles and a terrain where lines of communication
are difficult to maintain. For this reason land
warfare played a secondary role in the First Punic
War. Land operations were mostly confined to small
scale raids and skirmishes between the armies, with
hardly any pitched battles. Sieges and land
blockades were the most common operations for the
regular army. The main targets of blockading were
the important naval ports, since neither of the
belligerent parties was based in Sicily and both
needed a continuous supply of reinforcements and
communication with the mainland.
The land war in Sicily began with the Romans landing
at Messana in 264 BC. Despite Carthage's pre-war
naval advantage, the Roman landing was virtually
unopposed. Two legions commanded by Appius Claudius
Caudex disembarked at Messana, where the Mamertines
had expelled the Carthaginian garrison commanded by
Hanno (No relation to Hanno the Great). Rome's
initial strategy was to eliminate Syracuse as an
enemy. From Messana, the Romans marched south,
attacking Hadranon and Kentoripa. These two towns
were on the road around Mt. Etna. Taking these towns
thus protected the right flank of the Roman advance.
The town of Catania immediately made peace with the
Romans. The Romans continued south to Syracuse,
which was briefly besieged. Due to a lack of a
strong Carthaginian response, Syracuse made peace
with the Romans. The towns of Halaisa, located on
the north shore of Sicily, and Enna, located in
central Sicily on the Catania-Agrigentum road and
the Thermae-Gela road, also made peace with the
Romans.
Roman arrival and
neutralization of Syracuse.
With Enna joining the Roman side, the road to the
important coastal city of Agrigentum was open. In
262 BC, Rome besieged the city of Agrigentum, an
operation that involved both consular armies - a
total of four Roman legions - and took several
months to resolve. The garrison of Agrigentum
managed to call for reinforcements and a
Carthaginian relief force commanded by Hanno came to
the rescue and destroyed the Roman supply base at
Erbessus. With the supplies from Syracuse cut, the
Romans found themselves also besieged and
constructed a line of contravallation. After a few
skirmishes, the battle of Agrigentum was fought and
won by Rome, and the city fell.
The Roman advance continued westward from Agrigentum
with their forces relieving the besieged cities of
Segeste and Makella in 260 BC. These cities had
sided with the Roman cause, and came under
Carthaginian attack for doing so. In the north, the
Romans, with their northern sea flank secured by
their naval victory at Battle of Mylae, advanced
toward Thermae. They were defeated there by the
Carthaginians under Hamilcar (a popular Carthaginian
name, not to be confused with Hannibal Barca's
father, with the same name) in 260 BC. The
Carthaginians took advantage of this victory by
counterattacking, in 259 BC, and seizing Enna.
Hamilcar continued south to Camarina, in Syracusan
territory, presumably with the intent to convince
the Syracusans to rejoin the Carthaginian side.
Hamilcar's attack.
The next year, 258 BC, the Romans were able to
regain the initiative by retaking Enna and Camarina.
In central Sicily, they took the town of
Mytistraton, which they had attacked twice
previously. The Romans also moved in the north by
marching across the northern coast toward Panormus,
but were not able to take the city.
Continued Roman
advance
After their conquests in the Agrigentum campaign,
Rome attempted (256/255 BC) the second large scale
land operation of the war. Following several naval
battles, Rome was aiming for a quick end to
hostilities and decided to invade the Carthaginian
colonies of Africa, to force the enemy to accept
terms. A major fleet was built, comprised of
transports for the army and its equipment and
warships for protection. Carthage attempted to
intervene with a fleet of 350 ships (according to
Polybios), but was defeated in the battle of Cape
Ecnomus. As a result, the Roman army, commanded by
Marcus Atilius Regulus, landed in Africa and began
ravaging the Carthaginian countryside. At first
Regulus was victorious, winning the battle of Adys
and forcing Carthage to sue for peace. The terms
were so heavy that negotiations failed and, in
response, the Carthaginians hired Xanthippus, a
Spartan mercenary, to reorganize the army.
Xanthippus managed to cut off the Roman army from
its base by re-establishing Carthaginian naval
supremacy, then defeated and captured Regulus at the
battle of Tunis.
Invasion of Africa.
Roman misfortunes did not end then, however. The
survivors of the African debacle, sailing home, were
caught in a storm, and most of their fleet was
destroyed. The Carthaginians took advantage of this
to attack Agrigentum. They did not believe they
could hold the city, however, so they burned it and
left.
Carthage's respite.
The Romans were able to rally, however, and quickly
resumed the offensive. Attacks began with naval
assaults on Lilybaeum, the center of Carthaginian
power on Sicily, and a raid on Africa. Both efforts
ended in failure. The Romans retreated from
Lilybaeum, and the African force was caught in
another storm and destroyed. The Romans made great
progress in the north. The city of Thermae was
captured in 252 BC, enabling another advance on the
port city of Panormus. The Romans attacked this city
after taking Kephalodon in 251 BC. After fierce
fighting, the Carthaginians were defeated and the
city fell. With Panormus captured, much of western
inland Sicily fell with it. The cities of Ieta,
Solous, Petra, and Tyndaris agreed to peace with the
Romans that same year.
Roman attacks
renewed.
The next year the Romans shifted their attention to
the southwest. They sent a naval expedition toward
Lilybaeum. En route, the Romans seized and burned
the Carthaginian hold-out cities of Selinous and
Heraclea Minoa. This expedition to Lilybaeum was not
successful, but attacking the Carthiginian
headquarters demonstrated Roman resolve to take all
of Sicily. The Roman fleet was defeated by the
Carthaginians at Drepana, forcing the Romans to
continue their attacks from land. Roman forces at
Lilybaeum were relieved, and Eryx, near Drapana, was
seized thus menacing that important city as well.
Roman attacks
renewed.
At this point, (249 BC), Carthage sent general
Hamilcar Barca (Hannibal's father) to Sicily. His
landing at Heirkte (near Panormus) drew the Romans
away to defend that port city and resupply point and
gave Drepana some breathing room. Subsequent
guerilla warfare kept the Roman legions pinned down
and preserved Carthage's toehold in Sicily, although
Roman forces which bypassed Hamilcar forced him to
relocate to Eryx, to better defend Drepana.
Nevertheless, Carthaginian success in Sicily was
secondary to the progress of the war at sea; the
stalemate Hamilcar produced in Sicily became
irrelevant following the Roman naval victory at the
battle of the Aegates Islands in 241 BC. As a result
of this naval victory, the Carthaginians sued for
peace and agreed to evacuate Sicily.
Carthaginians
negotiate peace and withdraw.
Naval warfare
Due to the difficulty of operating in Sicily, most
of the First Punic War was fought at sea, including
the most decisive battles. But one reason the war
bogged down into stalemate on the landward side was
because ancient navies were ineffective at
maintaining seaward blockades of enemy ports.
Consequently, Carthage was able to reinforce and
re-supply its besieged strongholds, especially
Lilybaeum, on the western end of Sicily. Both sides
of the conflict had publicly funded fleets. This
fact compromised Carthage and Rome's finances and
eventually decided the course of the war.
At the beginning of the First Punic War, Rome had
virtually no experience in naval warfare, whereas
Carthage had a great deal of experience on the seas
thanks to its centuries of sea-based trade.
Nevertheless, the growing Roman Republic soon
understood the importance of Mediterranean control
in the outcome of the conflict.
The first major Roman fleet was constructed after
the victory of Agrigentum in 261 BC. Some historians
have speculated that since Rome lacked advanced
naval technology the design of the warships was
probably copied verbatim from captured Carthaginian
triremes and quinqueremes or from ships that had
beached on Roman shores due to storms. Other
historians have pointed out that Rome did have
experience with naval technology, as she patrolled
her coasts against piracy. Another possibility is
that Rome received technical assistance from its
seafaring Sicilian ally, Syracuse. Regardless of the
state of their naval technology at the start of the
war, Rome quickly adapted.
Perhaps in order to compensate for the lack of
experience, and to make use of standard land
military tactics on sea, the Romans equipped their
new ships with a special boarding device, the
corvus. Instead of maneuvering to ram, which was the
standard naval tactic at the time, corvus equipped
ships would maneuver alongside the enemy vessel,
deploy the bridge which would attach to the enemy
ship through spikes on the end of the bridge, and
send legionnaires across as boarding parties.
The new weapon's efficiency was first proved in the
battle of Mylae, the first Roman naval victory, and
continued to prove its value in the following years,
especially in the huge Battle of Ecnomus. The
addition of the corvus forced Carthage to review its
military tactics, and since the city had difficulty
in doing so, Rome had the naval advantage. Later, as
Roman experience in naval warfare grew, the corvus
device was abandoned due to its impact on the
navigability of the war vessels. In a single storm
off of Camarina (Sicily) the Romans are said to have
lost all but 80 ships, due perhaps to the
instability caused by the corvus. According to
Polybius the fleet comprised 364 ships while the
historian Eutropius states that there were 464.
Under these assumptions it could be true that
upwards of 100,000 Romans were killed in the
disaster, making it the greatest maritime disaster
in history, and a possible reason why the Romans
abandoned the use of the very effective corvus.
Despite the Roman victories at sea, the Roman
Republic lost countless ships and crews during the
war, due to both storms and battles. On at least two
occasions (255 and 253 BC) whole fleets were
destroyed in bad weather; the disaster off Camarina
in 255 BC counted two hundred seventy ships and over
one hundred thousand men lost, the greatest single
loss in history.[1] One theory for the problem is
the weight of the corvus on the prows of the ships
made the ships unstable and caused them to sink in
bad weather. Following the conclusive naval victory
off of Drepana in 249 BC Carthage ruled the seas, as
Rome was unwilling to finance the construction of
yet another expensive fleet. Nevertheless the
Carthaginian faction that opposed the conflict, led
by the land-owning aristocrat Hanno the Great,
gained power and in 244, and considering the war to
be over, started the demobilization of the fleet,
giving the Romans a chance to again attain naval
superiority. However, during this period, Hamilcar
Barca orchestrated a number of coastal raids in
Italy. Perhaps in response, Rome did build another
fleet paid for with donations from wealthy citizens
and the First Punic War was decided in the naval
battle of the Aegates Islands (March 10, 241 BC),
where the new Roman fleet under consul Gaius
Lutatius Catulus was victorious over an undermanned
and hastily built Carthaginian fleet. Carthage lost
most of its fleet and was economically incapable of
funding another, or to find manpower for the crews.
Without naval support, Hamilcar Barca was cut off
from Carthage and forced to negotiate peace. It
should be noted that Hamilcar Barca had a
subordinate named Gesco conduct the negotiations
with Lutatius, in order to create the impression
that he had not really been defeated.
Aftermath
Rome won the First Punic War after 23 years of
conflict and in the end became the dominant naval
power of the Mediterranean. In the aftermath of the
war, both states were financially and
demographically exhausted. Corsica, Sardinia and
Africa remained Carthaginian, but they had to pay a
high war indemnity. Rome's victory was greatly
influenced by its persistence. Moreover, the Roman
Republic's ability to attract private investments in
the war effort to fund ships and crews, was one of
the deciding factors of the war, particularly when
contrasted with the Carthaginian nobility's apparent
unwillingness to risk their fortunes for the common
good.[citation needed]
Casualties
The exact number of casualties on each side is
always difficult to determine, due to bias in the
historical sources, normally directed to enhance
Rome's value.
According to sources (excluding land warfare
casualties):
- Rome lost 700 ships (to bad weather and
unfortunate tactical dispositions before battle)
and at least part of their crews.
- Carthage lost 500 ships (to the new boarding
tactics and later to the increasingly superior
training, quantity and armarment of the Roman
navy) and at least part of their crews.
Although uncertain, the casualties were heavy for
both sides. Polybius commented that the war was, at
the time, the most destructive in terms of
casualties in the history of warfare, including the
battles of Alexander the Great. Analyzing the data
from the Roman census of the 3rd century BC, Adrian
Goldsworthy noted that during the conflict Rome lost
about 50,000 citizens. This excludes auxiliary
troops and every other man in the army without
citizen status, who would be outside the head count.
Peace terms
The terms of the Treaty of Lutatius designed by the
Romans were particularly heavy for Carthage which
had lost bargaining power following it's defeat at
the Aegates islands. Both sides agreed upon:
- Carthage evacuates Sicily.
- Carthage returns their prisoners of war
without ransom, while paying heavy ransom on
their own
- Carthage refrains from attacking
Syracuse and her allies
- Carthage transfers a group of small
islands north of Sicily to Rome
- Carthage evacuates all of the small
islands between Sicily and Africa
- Carthage pays a 2,200 talent indemnity
in ten annual installments, plus an
additional indemnity of 1,000 talents
immediately [2]
Further clauses determined that the allies of each
side would not be attacked by the other, no attacks
were to be made by either side upon the other's
allies and both sides were prohibited from
recruiting soldiers within the territory of the
other. This denied the Carthaginians access to any
mercenary manpower from Italy and most of Sicily,
although this later clause was temporarily abolished
during the Mercenary War.
Political results
In the aftermath of the war, Carthage had virtually
no state funds. Hanno the Great tried to induce the
disbanded military armies to accept diminished
payment, but kindled a movement that lead to an
internal conflict, the Mercenary War. After a hard
struggle the combined efforts of Hamilcar Barca,
Hanno the Great and others the Punic forces were
finally able to annihilate the mercenaries and the
insurgents. However, during this conflict, Rome took
advantage of the opportunity to strip Carthage of
Corsica and Sardinia as well.
Perhaps the most immediate political result of the
First Punic War was the downfall of Carthage's naval
power. Conditions signed in the peace treaty were
intended to compromise Carthage's economic situation
and prevent the city's recovery. The indemnity
demanded by the Romans caused strain on the city's
finances and forced Carthage to look to other areas
of influence for the money to pay Rome.
As for Rome, the end of the First Punic War marked
the start of the expansion beyond the Italian
Peninsula. Sicily became the first Roman province
(Sicilia) governed by a former praetor, instead of
an ally. Sicily would become very important to Rome
as a source of grain. Importantly, Syracuse was
granted nominal independent ally status for the
lifetime of Hiero II, and was not incorporated into
the Roman province of Sicily until after it was
sacked by Marcus Claudius Marcellus during the
Second Punic War.
Notable leaders
- Ad Herbal, Carthaginian leading
admiral
- Appius Claudius Caudex, Roman consul
- Aulus Atilius Calatinus, Roman
dictator
- Gaius Duilius, Roman consul
- Gaius Lutatius Catulus, Roman consul
- Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio Asina, Roman
consul
- Hamilcar Barca, Carthaginian leading
general
- Hannibal Gisco, Carthaginian general
- Hanno the Great, Carthaginian
leading politician.
- Hasdrubal, Carthaginian general
- Hiero II, tyrant of Syracuse
- Lucius Caecilius Metellus, Roman
consul
- Marcus Atilius Regulus, Roman consul
- Publius Claudius Pulcher, Roman
consul
- Xanthippus, mercenary in the service
of Carthage
- Hannibal the Rhodian, Carthaginian
privateer
Chronology
- 264 BC - The Mamertines seek
assistance from Rome to replace
Carthage's protection against the
attacks of Hiero II of Syracuse.
- 263 BC - Hiero II is defeated by
consul Manius Valerius Messalla and
is forced to change allegiance to
Rome, which recognizes his position
as King of Syracuse and the
surrounding territory.
- 262 BC - Roman intervention in
Sicily. The city of Agrigentum,
occupied by Carthage, is besieged.
- 261 BC - Battle of Agrigentum,
which results in a Roman victory and
capture of the city. Rome decides to
build a fleet to threaten
Carthaginian domination in the sea.
- 260 BC - First naval encounter
(battle of the Lipari Islands) is a
disaster to Rome, but soon
afterwards, Gaius Duilius wins the
battle of Mylae with the help of the
corvus engine.
- 259 BC - The land fighting is
extended to Sardinia and Corsica.
- 258 BC - Naval battle of Sulci:
Roman victory.
- 257 BC - Naval battle of
Tyndaris: Roman victory.
- 256 BC - Rome attempts to invade
Africa and Carthage attempts to
intersect the transport fleet. The
resulting battle of Cape Ecnomus is
a major victory for Rome, who lands
in Africa and advances on Carthage.
The battle of Adys is the first
Roman success in African soil and
Carthage sues for peace.
Negotiations fail to reach agreement
and the war continues.
- 255 BC - The Carthaginians
employ a Spartan general,
Xanthippus, to organize their
defenses and defeat the Romans at
the battle of Tunis. The Roman
survivors are evacuated by a fleet
to be destroyed soon afterwards, on
their way back to Sicily.
- 254 BC - A new fleet of 140
Roman ships is constructed to
substitute the one lost in the storm
and a new army is levied. The Romans
win a victory at Panormus, in
Sicily, but fail to make any further
progress in the war. Five Greek
cities in Sicily defect from
Carthage to Rome.
- 253 BC - The Romans then pursued
a policy of raiding the African
coast east of Carthage. After an
unsuccessful year the fleet head for
home. During the return to Italy the
Romans are again caught in a storm
and lose 150 ships.
- 251 BC - The Romans again win at
Panormus over the Carthaginians, led
by Hasdrubal. As a result of the
recent losses, Carthage endeavors to
strengthen its garrisons in Sicily
and recapture Agrigentum. Romans
begin siege of Lilybaeum.
- 249 BC - Rome loses almost a
whole fleet in the battle of
Drepana. In the same year Hamilcar
Barca accomplishes successful raids
in Sicily and yet another storm
destroys the remainder of the Roman
ships. Aulus Atilius Calatinus is
appointed dictator and sent to
Sicily.
- 248 BC - Beginning of a period
of low intensity fighting in Sicily,
without naval battles. This lull
would last until 241 BC.
- 244 BC - With little to no naval
engagements, Hanno the Great of
Carthage advocates demobilization of
large parts of the Carthaginian navy
to save money. Carthage does so.
- 242 BC - Rome constructs another
major battle fleet.
- 241 BC - On March 10 takes place
the Battle of the Aegates Islands,
with a decisive Roman victory.
Carthage negotiates peace terms and
the First Punic War ends.
Bibliography
- The Punic Wars, by Adrian
Goldsworthy, Cassel
- The First Punic War, A
military history by J.F.
Lazenby, 1996, UCLPress
- World History by Polybius,
1.7 - 1.60
- Evolution of Weapons and
Warfare by Trevor N. Dupuy.
Footnotes
1 Trevor N. Dupuy, Evolution of Weapons and Warfare
2 Polybius, 1:62.7-63.3 |