THE INFLUENCE OF ASSYRIA
UPON PROPHECY
BY far the greatest event in the eighth century
before Christ was the appearance of Assyria in Palestine. To Israel
since the Exodus and Conquest, nothing had happened capable of so
enormous an influence at once upon their national fortunes and their
religious development. But while the Exodus and Conquest had
advanced the political and spiritual progress of Israel in equal
proportion, the effect of the Assyrian invasion was to divorce these
two interests, and destroy the state while it refined and confirmed
the religion. After permitting the Northern Kingdom to reach an
extent and splendor unrivalled since the days of Solomon, Assyria
overthrew it in 721, and left all Israel scarcely a third of their
former magnitude. But while Assyria proved so disastrous to the
state, her influence upon the prophecy of the period was little
short of creative. Humanly speaking, this highest stage of Israel’s
religion could not have been achieved by the prophets except in
alliance with the armies of that heathen empire. Before then we turn
to their pages it may be well for us to make clear in what
directions Assyria performed this spiritual service for Israel.
While pursuing this inquiry we may be able to find answers to the
scarcely less important questions: why the prophets were at first
doubtful of the part Assyria was destined to play in the providence
of the Almighty; and why, when the prophets were at last convinced
of the certainty of Israel’s overthrow, the statesmen of Israel and
the bulk of the people still remained so unconcerned about her
coming, or so sanguine of their power to resist her. This requires,
to begin with, a summary of the details of the Assyrian advance upon
Palestine.
In the far past Palestine had often been the hunting-ground of the
Assyrian kings. But after 1100 B.C., and for nearly two centuries
and a half, her states were left to themselves. Then Assyria resumed
the task of breaking down that disbelief in her power with which her
long withdrawal seems to have inspired their polities. In 870
Assurnasirpal reached the Levant, and took tribute from Tyre and
Sidon. Omri was reigning in Samaria, and must have come into close
relations with the Assyrians, for during more than a century and a
half after his death they still called the land of Israel by his
name. In 854 Salmanassar II defeated at Karkar the combined forces
of Ahab and Benhadad. In 850, 849, and 846 he conducted campaigns
against Damascus. In 842 he received tribute from Jehu, and in 839
again fought Damascus under Hazael. After this there passed a whole
generation during which Assyria came no farther south than Arpad,
some sixty miles north of Damascus; and Hazael employed the respite
in those campaigns which proved so disastrous for Israel, by robbing
her of the provinces across Jordan, and ravaging the country about
Samaria. {2Ki 10:32 f.; 2Ki 13:3} In 803 Assyria returned, and
accomplished the siege and capture of Damascus. The first
consequence to Israel was that restoration of her hopes under Joash,
at which the aged Elisha was still spared to assist, {2Ki 13:14 ff.}
and which reached its fulfillment in the recovery of all Eastern
Palestine by Jeroboam II Jeroboam’s own relations to Assyria have
not been recorded either by the Bible or by the Assyrian monuments.
It is hard to think that he paid no tribute to the "king of kings."
At all events it is certain that, while Assyria again overthrew the
Arameans of Damascus in 773 and their neighbors of Hadrach in 772
and 765, Jeroboam was himself invading Aramean land, and the Book of
Kings even attributes to him an extension of territory, or at least
of political influence, up to the northern mouth of the great pass
between the Lebanons. For the next twenty years Assyria only once
came as far as Lebanon-to Hadrach in 759-and it may have been this
long quiescence which enabled the rulers and people of Israel to
forget, if indeed their religion and sanguine patriotism had ever
allowed them to realize, how much the conquests and splendor of
Jeroboam’s reign were due, not to themselves, but to the heathen
power which had maimed their oppressors. Their dreams were brief.
Before Jeroboam himself was dead, a new king had usurped the
Assyrian throne (745 B.C.) and inaugurated a more vigorous policy.
Borrowing the name of the ancient Tiglath-Pileser, he followed that
conqueror’s path across the Euphrates. At first it seemed as if he
was to suffer check. His forces were engrossed by the siege of Arpad
for three years (c. 743), and this delay, along with that of two
years more, during which he had to return to the conquest of
Babylon, may well have given cause to the courts of Damascus and
Samaria to believe that the Assyrian power had not really revived.
Combining, they attacked Judah under Ahaz. But Ahaz appealed to
Tiglath-Pileser, who within a year (734-733) had overthrown Damascus
and carried captive the populations of Gilead and Galilee. There
could now be no doubt as to what the Assyrian power meant for the
political fortunes of Israel. Before this resistless and inexorable
empire the people of Jehovah were as the most frail of their
neighbors-sure of defeat, and sure, too, of that terrible captivity
in exile which formed the novel policy of the invaders against the
tribes who withstood them. Israel dared to withstand. The vassal
Hoshea, whom the Assyrians had placed on the throne of Samaria in
730, kept back his tribute. The people rallied to him; and for more
than three years this little tribe of highlanders resisted in their
capital the Assyrian siege. Then came the end. Samaria fell in 721,
and Israel went into captivity beyond the Euphrates.
In following the course of this long tragedy, a man’s heart cannot
but feel that all the splendor and the glory did not lie with the
prophets, in spite of their being the only actors in the drama who
perceived its moral issues and predicted its actual end. For who can
withhold admiration from those few tribesmen, who accepted no defeat
as final, but so long as they were left to their fatherland rallied
their ranks to its liberty and defied the huge empire. Nor was their
courage always as blind, as in the time of Isaiah Samaria’s so
fatally became. For one cannot have failed to notice, how fitful and
irregular was Assyria’s advance, at least up to the reign of
Tiglath-Pileser; nor how prolonged and doubtful were her sieges of
some of the towns. The Assyrians themselves do not always record
spoil or tribute after what they are pleased to call their victories
over the cities of Palestine. To the same campaign they had often to
return for several years in succession. It took Tiglath-Pileser
himself three years to reduce Arpad; Salmanassar IV besieged Samaria
for three years, and was slain before it yielded. These facts enable
us to understand that, apart from the moral reasons which the
prophets urged for the certainty of Israel’s overthrow by Assyria,
it was always within the range of political possibility that Assyria
would not come back, and that while she was engaged with revolts of
other portions of her huge and disorganized empire, a combined
revolution on the part of her Syrian vassals would be successful.
The prophets themselves felt the influence of these chances. They
were not always confident, as we shall see, that Assyria was to be
the means of Israel’s over, throw. Amos, and in his earlier years
Isaiah, describe her with a caution and a vagueness for which there
is no other explanation than the political uncertainty that again
and again hung over the future of her advance upon Syria. If, then,
even in those high minds, to whom the moral issue was so clear, the
political form that issue should assume was yet temporarily
uncertain, what good reasons must the mere statesmen of Syria have
often felt for the proud security which filled the intervals between
the Assyrian invasions, or the sanguine hopes which inspired their
resistance to the latter.
We must not cast over the whole Assyrian advance the triumphant air
of the annals of such kings as Tiglath-Pileser or Sennacherib.
Campaigning in Palestine was a dangerous business even to the
Romans; and for the Assyrian armies there was always possible
besides some sudden recall by the rumor of a revolt in a distant
province. Their own annals supply us with good reasons for the
sanguine resistance offered to them by the tribes of Palestine. No
defeat, of course, is recorded; but the annals are full of delays
and withdrawals. Then the Plague would break out; we know how in the
last year of the century it turned Sennacherib, and saved Jerusalem.
In short, up almost to the end the Syrian chiefs had some fair
political reasons for resistance to a power which had so often
defeated them; while at the very end, when no such reason remained
and our political sympathy is exhausted, we feel it replaced by an
even warmer admiration for their desperate defense. Mere
mountain-cats of tribes as some of them were, they held their poorly
furnished rocks against one, two, or three years of cruel siege.
In Israel these political reasons for courage against Assyria were
enforced by the whole instincts of the popular religion. The century
had felt a new outburst of enthusiasm for Jehovah. This was
consequent, not only upon the victories He had granted over Aram,
but upon the literature of the peace which followed those victories:
the collection of the stories of the ancient miracles of Jehovah in
the beginning of His people’s history, and of the purpose He had
even then announced of bringing Israel to supreme rank in the world.
Such a God, so anciently manifested, so recently proved, could never
surrender His own nation to a mere Goi-a heathen and a barbarian
people. Add this dogma of the popular religion of Israel to those
substantial hopes of Assyria’s withdrawal from Palestine, and you
see cause, intelligible and adequate, for the complacency of
Jeroboam and his people to the fact that Assyria had at last, by the
fall of Damascus, reached their own borders, as well as for the
courage with which Hoshea in 725 threw off the Assyrian yoke, and,
with a willing people, for three years defended Samaria against the
great king. Let us not think that the opponents of the prophets were
utter fools or mere puppets of fate. They had reasons for their
optimism; they fought for their hearths and altars with a valor and
a patience which proves that the nation as a whole was not so
corrupt as we are sometimes, by the language of the prophets,
tempted to suppose.
But all this-the reasonableness of the hope of resisting Assyria,
the valor which so stubbornly fought her, the religious faith which
sanctioned both valor and hope-only the more vividly illustrates the
singular independence of the prophets, who took an opposite view,
who so consistently affirmed that Israel must fall, and so early
foretold that she should fall to Assyria.
The reason of this conviction of the prophets was, of course, their
fundamental faith in the righteousness of Jehovah. That was a belief
quite independent of the course of events. As a matter of history
the ethical reasons for Israel’s doom were manifest to the prophets
within Israel’s own life, before the signs grew clear on the horizon
that the doomster was to be Assyria. Nay, we may go further, and say
that it could not possibly have been otherwise. For except the
prophets had been previously furnished with the ethical reasons for
Assyria’s resistless advance on Israel, to their sensitive minds
that advance must have been a hopeless and a paralyzing problem. But
they nowhere treat it as a problem. By them Assyria is always Either
welcomed as a proof or summoned as a means-the proof of their
conviction that Israel requires humbling, the means of carrying that
humbling into effect. The faith of the prophets is ready for Assyria
from the moment that she becomes ominous for Israel, and every
footfall of her armies on Jehovah’s soil becomes the corroboration
of the purpose He has already declared to His servants in the terms
of their moral consciousness. The spiritual service which Assyria
rendered to Israel was therefore secondary to the prophets’ native
convictions of the righteousness of God, and could not have been
performed without these. This will become even more clear if we look
for a little at the exact nature of that service.
In its broadest effects, the Assyrian invasion meant for Israel a
very considerable change in the intellectual outlook. Hitherto
Israel’s world had virtually lain between the borders promised of
old to their ambition-"the river of Egypt, and the great river, the
River Euphrates." These had marked not merely the sphere of Israel’s
politics, but the horizon within which Israel had been accustomed to
observe the action of their God and to prove His character, to feel
the problems of their religion rise and to grapple with them. But
now there burst from the outside of this little world that awful
power, sovereign and inexorable, which effaced all distinctions and
treated Israel in the same manner as her heathen neighbors. This was
more than a widening of the world: it was a change of the very
poles. At first sight it appeared merely to have increased the scale
on which history was conducted; it was really an alteration of the
whole character of history. Religion itself shriveled up, before a
force so much vaster than anything it had yet encountered, and so
contemptuous of its claims. "What is Jehovah," said the Assyrian in
his laughter, "more than the gods of Damascus, or of Hamath, or of
the Philistines?" In fact, for the mind of Israel, the crisis,
though less in degree, was in quality not unlike that produced in
the religion of Europe by the revelation of the Copernican
astronomy. As the earth, previously believed to be the center of the
universe, the stage on which the Son of God had achieved God’s
eternal purposes to mankind, was discovered to be but a satellite of
one of innumerable suns, a mere ball swung beside millions of others
by a force which betrayed no sign of sympathy with the great
transactions which took place on it, and so faith in the Divine
worth of these was rudely shaken-so Israel, who had believed
themselves to be the peculiar people of the Creator, the solitary
agents of the God of Righteousness to all mankind, and who now felt
themselves brought to an equality with other tribes by this sheer
force, which, brutally indifferent to spiritual distinctions, swayed
the fortunes of all alike, must have been tempted to unbelief in the
spiritual facts of their history, in the power of their God and the
destiny He had promised them. Nothing could have saved Israel, as
nothing could have saved Europe, but a conception of God which rose
to this new demand upon its powers-a faith which said, "Our God is
sufficient for this greater world and its forces that so dwarf our
own; the discovery of these only excites in us a more awful wonder
of His power." The prophets had such a conception of God. To them He
was absolute righteousness-righteousness wide as the widest world,
stronger than the strongest force. To the prophets, therefore, the
rise of Assyria only increased the possibilities of Providence. But
it could not have done this had Providence not already been invested
in a God capable by His character of rising to such possibilities.
Assyria, however, was not only Force: she was also the symbol of a
great Idea-the Idea of Unity. We have just ventured on one
historical analogy. We may try another and a more exact one. The
Empire of Rome, grasping the whole world in its power and reducing
all races of men to much the same level of political rights,
powerfully assisted Christian theology in the task of imposing upon
the human mind a clearer imagination of unity in the government of
the world and of spiritual equality among men of all nations. A not
dissimilar service to the faith of Israel was performed by the
Empire of Assyria. History, that hitherto had been but a series of
angry pools, became as the ocean swaying in tides to one almighty
impulse. It was far easier to imagine a sovereign Providence when
Assyria reduced history to a unity by overthrowing all the rulers
and all their gods, than when history was broken up into the
independent fortunes of many states, each with its own religion
divinely valid in its own territory. By shattering the tribes
Assyria shattered the tribal theory of religion, which we have seen
to be the characteristic Semitic theory-a god for every tribe, a
tribe for every god. The field was cleared of the many: there was
room for the One. That He appeared, not as the God of the conquering
race, but as the Deity of one of their many victims, was due to
Jehovah’s righteousness. At this juncture, when the world was
suggested to have one throne and that throne was empty, there was a
great chance, if we may so put it, for a god with a character. And
the only God in all the Semitic world who had a character was
Jehovah.
It is true that the Assyrian Empire was not constructive, like the
Roman, and, therefore, could not assist the prophets to the idea of
a Catholic Church. But there can be no doubt that it did assist them
to a feeling of the moral unity of mankind. A great historian has
made the just remark that, whatsoever widens the imagination,
enabling it to realize the actual experience of other men, is a
powerful agent of ethical advance. Now Assyria widened the
imagination and the sympathy of Israel in precisely this way.
Consider the universal Pity of the Assyrian conquest: how state
after state went down before it, how all things mortal yielded and
were swept away. The mutual hatreds and ferocities of men could not
persist before a common Fate, so sublime, so tragic. And thus we
understand how in Israel the old envies and rancors of that border
warfare with her foes which had filled the last four centuries of
her history is replaced by a new tenderness and compassion towards
the national efforts, the achievements, and all the busy life of the
Gentile peoples. Isaiah is especially distinguished by this in his
treatment of Egypt and of Tyre; and even where he and others do not,
as in these cases, appreciate the sadness of the destruction of so
much brave beauty and serviceable wealth, their tone in speaking of
the fall of the Assyrian on their neighbors is one of compassion and
not of exultation. As the rivalries and hatreds of individual lives
are stilled in the presence of a common death, so even that
factious, ferocious world of the Semites ceased to "fret its anger
and watch it forever" (to quote Amos’ phrase) in face of the
universal Assyrian Fate. But in that Fate there was more than Pity.
On the date of the prophets Assyria was afflicting Israel for moral
reasons: it could not be for other reasons that she was afflicting
their neighbors. Israel and the heathen were suffering for the same
righteousness’ sake. What could have better illustrated the moral
equality of all mankind! No doubt the prophets were already
theoretically convinced of this-for the righteousness they believed
in was nothing if not universal. But it is one thing to hold a
belief on principle and another to have practical experience of it
in history. To a theory of the moral equality of mankind Assyria
enabled the prophets to add sympathy and conscience. We shall see
all this illustrated in the opening prophecies of Amos against the
foreign nations.
But Assyria did not help to develop monotheism in Israel only by
contributing to the doctrines of a moral Providence and of the
equality of all men beneath it. The influence must have extended to
Israel’s conception of God in Nature. Here, of course, Israel was
already possessed of great beliefs. Jehovah had created man; He had
divided the Red Sea and Jordan. The desert, the storm, and the
seasons were all subject to Him. But at a time when the
superstitious mind of the people was still feeling after other
Divine powers in the earth, the waters and the air of Canaan, it was
a very valuable antidote to such dissipation of their faith to find
one God swaying, through Assyria, all families of mankind. The
Divine unity to which history was reduced must have reacted on
Israel’s views of Nature, and made it easier to feel one God also
there. Now, as a matter of fact, the imagination of the unity of
Nature, the belief in a reason and method pervading all things, was
very powerfully advanced in Israel throughout the Assyrian period.
We may find an illustration of this in the greater, deeper meaning
in which the prophets use the old national name of Israel’s
God-Jehovah Seba’oth, "Jehovah of Hosts." This title, which came
into frequent use under the early kings, when Israel’s vocation was
to win freedom by war, meant then (as far as we can gather) only
"Jehovah of the armies of Israel" - the God of battles, the people’s
leader in war, whose home was Jerusalem, the people’s capital, and
His sanctuary their battle emblem, the Ark. Now the prophets hear
Jehovah go forth (as Amos does) from the same place, but to them the
Name has a far deeper significance. They never define it, but they
use it in associations where "hosts" must mean something different
from the armies of Israel. To Amos the hosts of Jehovah are not the
armies of Israel, but those of Assyria: they are also the nations
whom He marshals and marches across the earth, Philistines from
Caphtor, Aram from Qir, as well as Israel from Egypt. Nay, more;
according to those Doxologies which either Amos or a kindred spirit
has added to his lofty argument, Jehovah sways and orders the powers
of the heavens: Orion and Pleiades, the clouds from the sea to the
mountain peaks where they break, day and night in constant
procession. It is in associations like these that the Name is used,
either in its old form or slightly changed as "Jehovah God of
hosts," or "the hosts": and we cannot but feel that the hosts of
Jehovah are now looked upon as all the influences of earth and
heaven-human armies, stars and powers of nature, which obey His word
and work His will.
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