THE PROPHET IN EARLY ISRAEL
Our "Twelve Prophets" will carry us, as we have
seen, across the whole extent of the Prophetical period-the period
when prophecy became literature, assuming the form and rising to the
‘intensity of an imperishable influence on the world. The earliest
of the Twelve, Amos and Hosea, were the inaugurators of this period.
They were not only the first (so far as we know) to commit prophecy
to writing, but we find in them the germs of all its subsequent
development. Yet Amos and Hosea were not unfathered. Behind them lay
an older dispensation, and their own was partly a product of this,
and partly a revolt against it. Amos says of himself: "The Lord hath
spoken, who can but prophesy?"-but again: "No prophet I, nor
prophet’s son!" Who were those earlier prophets whose office Amos
assumed while repudiating their spirit-whose name he abjured, yet
could not escape from it? And, while we are about the matter, what
do we mean by "prophet" in general? In vulgar use the name "prophet"
has degenerated to the meaning of "one who foretells the future." Of
this meaning it is, perhaps, the first duty of every student of
prophecy earnestly and stubbornly to rid himself. In its native
Greek tongue "prophet" meant not "one who speaks before," but "one
who speaks for, or on behalf of, another." At the Delphic oracle
"The Prophet’s" was the title of the official who received the
utterances of the frenzied Pythoness and expounded them to the
people; but Plato says that this is a misuse of the word, and that
the true prophet is the inspired person himself, he who is in
communication with the Deity and who speaks directly for the Deity.
So Tiresias, the seer, is called by Pindar the "prophet" or
"interpreter of Zeus," and Plato even styles poets "the prophets of
the Muses." It is in this sense that we must think of the "Prophet"
of the Old Testament. He is a speaker for God. The sharer of God’s
counsels, as Amos calls him, he becomes the bearer and preacher of
God’s Word. Prediction of the future is only a part, and often a
subordinate and accidental part, of an office whose full function is
to declare the character and the will of God. But the prophet does
this in no systematic or abstract form. He brings his revelation
point by point, and in connection with some occasion in the history
of his people, or some phase of their character. He is not a
philosopher nor a theologian with a system of doctrine (at least
before Ezekiel), but the messenger and herald of God at some crisis
in the life or conduct of His people. His message is never out of
touch with events. These form either the subject matter or the proof
or the execution of every oracle he utters. It is, therefore, God
not merely as Truth, but far more as Providence, whom the prophet
reveals. And although that Providence includes the full destiny of
Israel and mankind, the prophet brings the news of it, for the most
part, piece by piece, with reference to some present sin or duty, or
some impending crisis or calamity. Yet he does all this, not merely
because the word needed for the day has been committed to him by
itself, and as if he were only its mechanical vehicle; but because
he has come under the overwhelming conviction of God’s presence and
of His character, a conviction often so strong that God’s word
breaks through him and God speaks in the first person to the people.
1. FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TILL SAMUEL
There was no ancient people but believed in the
power of certain personages to consult the Deity and to reveal His
will. Every man could sacrifice; but not every man could render in
return the oracle of God. This pertained to select individuals or
orders. So the prophet seems to have been an older specialist than
the priest, though in every tribe he frequently combined the
latter’s functions with his own.
The matters on which ancient man consulted God were as wide as life.
But naturally at first, in a rude state of society and at a low
stage of mental development, it was in regard to the material
defense and necessities of life, the bare law and order, that men
almost exclusively sought the Divine will. And the whole history of
prophecy is just the effort to substitute for these elementary
provisions a more personal standard of the moral law, and more
spiritual ideals of the Divine grace.
By the Semitic race-to which we may now confine ourselves, since
Israel belonged to it-Deity was worshipped, in the main, as the god
of a tribe. Every Semitic tribe had its own god; it would appear
that there was no god without a tribe: the traces of belief in a
supreme and abstract Deity are few and ineffectual. The tribe was
the medium by which the god made himself known, and became an
effective power on earth: the god was the patron of the tribe, the
supreme magistrate and the leader in war. The piety he demanded was
little more than loyalty to ritual; the morality he enforced was
only a matter of police. He took no cognizance of the character or
inner thoughts of the individual. But the tribe believed him to
stand in very close connection with all the practical interests of
their common life. They asked of him the detection of criminals, the
discovery of lost property, the settlement of civil suits, sometimes
when the crops should be sown, and always when war should be waged
and by what tactics.
The means by which the prophet consulted the Deity on these subjects
were for the most part primitive and rude. They may be summed up
under two kinds: Visions either through falling into ecstasy or by
dreaming in sleep, and Signs or Omens. Both kinds are instanced in
Balaam. Of the signs some were natural, like the whisper of trees,
the flight of birds, the passage of clouds, the movement of stars.
Others were artificial, like the casting or drawing of lots. Others
were between these, like the shape assumed by the entrails of the
sacrificed animals when thrown on the ground. Again, the prophet was
often obliged to do something wonderful in the people’s sight in
order to convince-them of his authority. In Biblical language he had
to work a miracle or give a sign. One instance throws a flood of
light on this habitual expectancy of the Semitic mind. There was
once an Arab chief who wished to consult a distant soothsayer as to
the guilt of a daughter. But before he would trust the seer to give
him the right answer to such a question he made him discover a grain
of corn which he had concealed about his horse. He required the
physical sign before he would accept the moral judgment.
Now, to us, the crudeness of the means employed, the opportunities
of fraud, the inadequacy of the tests for spiritual ends, are very
obvious. But do not let us, therefore, miss the numerous moral
opportunities which lay before the prophet even at that early stage
of his evolution. He was trusted to speak in the name of Deity.
Through him men believed in God and in the possibility of a
revelation. They sought from him the discrimination of evil from
good. The highest possibilities of social ministry lay open to him:
the tribal existence often hung on his word for peace or war; he was
the mouth of justice, the rebuke of evil, the champion of the
wronged. Where such opportunities were present, can we imagine the
Spirit of God to have been absent-the Spirit Who seeks men more than
they seek Him, and, as He condescends to use their poor language for
religion, must also have stooped to the picture language, to the
rude instruments, symbols and sacraments, of their early faith?
In an office of such mingled possibilities everything depended-as we
shall find it depend to the very end of prophecy-on the moral
insight and character of the prophet himself, on his conception of
God and whether he was so true to this as to overcome his
professional temptations to fraud and avarice, malice, towards
individuals, subservience to the powerful, or, worst snares of all,
the slothfulness and insincerity of routine. We see this moral issue
put very clearly in such a story as that of Balaam, or in such a
career as that of Mohammed.
So much for the Semitic soothsayer in general. Now let us turn to
Israel.
Among the Hebrews the "man of God," to use his widest designation,
is at first called "Seer," or "Gazer," the word which Balaam uses of
himself. In consulting the Divine will he employs the same external
means, he offers the people for their evidence the same signs, as do
the seers or soothsayers of other Semitic tribes. He gains influence
by the miracles, "the wonderful things," which he does. Moses
himself is represented after this fashion. He meets the magicians of
Egypt on their own level. His use of "rods"; the holding up of his
hands that Israel may prevail against Amaleq: Joshua’s casting of
tots to discover a criminal; Samuel’s dream in the sanctuary; his
discovery for a fee of the lost asses of Saul; David and the images
in his house, the ephod he consulted; the sign to go to battle "what
time thou hearest the sound of a going in the tops of the mulberry
trees"; Solomon’s inducement of dreams by sleeping in the sanctuary
at Gibeah, -these are a few of the many proofs that early prophecy
in Israel employed not only the methods but even much of the
furniture of the kindred Semitic religions. But then those tools and
methods were at the same time accompanied by the noble opportunities
of the prophetic office to which I have just alluded-opportunities
of religious and social ministry-and still more, these opportunities
were at the disposal of moral influences which, it is a matter of
history, were not found in any other Semitic religion than Israel’s;
However you will explain it, that Divine Spirit, which’ we have felt
unable to conceive as absent from any Semitic prophet who truly
sought after God, that Light which light, eth every man who cometh
into the world, was present to an unparalleled degree with the early
prophets of Israel. He came to individuals, and. to the nation as a
whole, in events and in influences which may be summed up as the
impression of the character of their national God, Jehovah: to use
Biblical language, as "Jehovah’s spirit" and "power." It is true
that in many ways the Jehovah of early Israel reminds us of other
Semitic deities. Like some of them He appears with thunder and
lightning; like all of them He is the God of one tribe who are His
peculiar people. He bears the same titles!-Melek, Adon, Baal
("King," "Lord," "Possessor"). He is propitiated by the same
offerings. To choose one striking instance, captives and spoil of
war are sacrificed to Him with the same relentlessness, and by a
process which has even the same names given to it, as in the votive
inscriptions of Israel’s heathen neighbors. Yet, notwithstanding all
these elements, the religion of Jehovah from the very first evinced,
by the confession of all critics, an ethical force shared by no
other Semitic creed. From the first there was in it the promise and
the potency of that sublime monotheism, which in the period of our
"Twelve" it afterwards reached. Its earliest effects of course were
chiefly political: it welded the twelve tribes into the unity of a
nation; it preserved them as one amid the many temptations to
scatter along those divergent lines of culture and of faith, which
the geography of their country placed so attractively before them.
It taught them to prefer religious loyalty to material advantage,
and so inspired them with high motives for self-sacrifice and every
other duty of patriotism. But it did even better than thus teach
them to bear one another’s burdens. It inspired them to care for one
another’s sins. The last chapters of the Book of Judges prove how
strong a national conscience there was in early Israel. Even then
Israel was a moral, as well as a political, unity. Gradually there
grew up, but still unwritten, a body of Torah, or revealed law,
which, though its framework was the common custom of the Semitic
race, was inspired by ideals of humanity and justice not elsewhere
in that race discernible by us.
When we analyze this ethical distinction of early Israel, this
indubitable progress which the nation were making while the rest of
their world was morally stagnant, we find it to be due to their
impressions of the character of their God. This character did not
affect them as Righteousness only. At first it was even a more
wonderful Grace. Jehovah had chosen them when they were no people,
had redeemed them from servitude, had brought them to their land;
had borne with their stubbornness, and had forgiven their
infidelities. Such a Character was partly manifest in the great
events of their history, and partly communicated itself to their
finest personalities-as the Spirit of God does communicate with the
spirit of man made in His image. Those personalities were the early
prophets from Moses to Samuel. They inspired the nation to believe
in God’s purposes for itself; they rallied it to war for the common
faith, and war was then the pitch of self-sacrifice; they gave
justice to it in God’s name, and rebuked its sinfulness without
sparing. Criticism has proved that we do not know nearly so much
about those first prophets as perhaps we thought we did. But under
their God they made Israel. Out of their work grew the monotheism of
their successors, whom we are now to study, and later the
Christianity of the New Testament. For myself I cannot but believe
that in the influence of Jehovah which Israel owned in those early
times there was the authentic revelation of a real Being.
2. FROM SAMUEL TO ELISHA.
Of the oldest order of Hebrew prophecy, Samuel
was the last representative. Till his time, we are told, the prophet
in Israel was known as the Seer, {1Sa 9:9} but now, with other
tempers and other habits, a new order appears whose name-and that
means to a certain extent their spirit-is to displace the older name
and the older spirit.
When Samuel anointed Saul he bade him, for a sign that he was chosen
of the Lord, go forth to meet "a company of prophets"-Nebi’im, the
singular is Nabi’-coming down from the high place or sanctuary with
viols, drums and pipes, and prophesying. "There," he added, "the
spirit of Jehovah shall come upon thee, and thou shalt prophesy with
them, and shalt be turned into another man." So it happened; and the
people "said one to another, What is this that is come to the son of
Kish? Is Saul also among the prophets?" Another story, probably from
another source, tells us that later, when Saul sent troops of
messengers to the sanctuary at Ramah to take David, they saw the
company of prophets prophesying and Samuel standing appointed over
them, and the spirit of God fell upon one after another of the
troops; as upon Saul himself when he followed them up. "And he
stripped off his clothes also, and prophesied before Samuel in like
manner, and lay down naked all that day and all that night.
Wherefore they say, Is Saul also among the prophets?" {1Sa 19:20-24}
All this is very different from the habits of the Seer, who had
hitherto represented prophecy. He was solitary, but these went about
in bands. They were filled with an infectious enthusiasm, by which
they excited each other and all sensitive persons whom they touched.
They stirred up this enthusiasm by singing, playing upon
instruments, and dancing: its results were frenzy, the tearing of
their clothes, and prostration. The same phenomena have appeared in
every religion-in Paganism often, and several times within
Christianity. They may be watched today among the dervishes of
Islam, who by singing (as one has seen them in Cairo), by swaying of
their bodies, by repeating the Divine Name, and dwelling on the love
and. ineffable power of God, work themselves into an excitement
which ends in prostration and often in insensibility. The whole
process is due to an overpowering sense of the Deity-crude and
unintelligent if you will, but sincere and authentic-which seems to
haunt the early stages of all religions, and to linger to the end
with the stagnant and unprogressive. The appearance of this prophecy
in Israel has given rise to a controversy as to whether it was
purely a native product, or was induced by infection from the
Canaanite tribes around. Such questions are of little interest in
face of these facts: that the ecstasy sprang up in Israel at a time
when the spirit of the people was stirred against the Philistines,
and patriotism and religion were equally excited; that it is
represented as due to the Spirit of Jehovah; and that the last of
the old order of Jehovah’s prophets recognized its harmony with his
own dispensation, presided over it, and gave Israel’s first king as
one of his signs, that he should come under its power. These things
being so, it is surprising that a recent critic should have seen in
the dancing prophets nothing but eccentrics into whose company it
was shame for so good a man as Saul to fall. He reaches this
conclusion only by supposing that the reflexive verb used for their
"prophesying"-hithnabbe- had at this time that equivalence to mere
madness to which it was reduced by the excesses of later generations
of prophets. With Samuel we feel that the word had no reproach: the
Nebi’im were recognized by him as standing in the prophetical
succession. They sprang up in sympathy with a national movement. The
king who joined himself to them was the same who sternly banished
from Israel all the baser forms of soothsaying and traffic with the
dead. But, indeed, we need no other proof than this: the name
Nebi’im so establishes itself in the popular regard that it
displaces the older names of Seer and Gazer, and becomes the
classical term for the whole body of prophets from Moses to Malachi.
There was one very remarkable change effected by this new order of
prophets, probably the very greatest relief which prophecy
experienced in the course of its evolution. This was separation from
the ritual and from the implements of soothsaying. Samuel had been
both priest and prophet. But after him the names and the duties were
specialized, though the specializing was incomplete. While the new
Nebi’im remained in connection with the ancient centers of religion,
they do not appear to have exercised any part of the ritual. The
priests, on the other hand, did not confine themselves to sacrifice,
and other forms of public worship, but exercised many of the
so-called prophetic functions. They also, as Hosea tells us, were
expected to give Toroth-revelations of the Divine will on points of
conduct and order. There remained with them the ancient forms of
oracle-the Ephod, or plated image, the Teraphim, the lot, and the
Orim and Thummim, all of these apparently still regarded as
indispensable elements of religion. From such rude forms of
ascertaining the Divine Will, prophecy in its new order was
absolutely free. And it was free of the ritual of the sanctuaries.
As has been justly remarked, the ritual of Israel always remained a
peril to the people, the peril of relapsing into Paganism. Not only
did it materialize faith and engross affections in the worshipper
which were meant for moral objects, but very many of its forms were
actually the same as those of the other Semitic religions, and it
tempted its devotees to the confusion of their God with the gods of
the heathen. Prophecy was now wholly independent of it, and we may
see in such independence the possibility of all the subsequent
career of prophecy along moral and spiritual lines. Amos absolutely
condemns the ritual, and Hosea brings the message from God, "I will
have mercy and not sacrifice." This is the distinctive glory of
prophecy in that era in which we are to study it. But do not let us
forget that it became possible through the ecstatic Nebi’im of
Samuel’s time, and through their separation from the national ritual
and the material forms of soothsaying. It is the way of Providence
to prepare for the revelation of great moral truths, by the
enfranchisement, sometimes centuries before, of an order or a nation
of men from political or professional interests which would have
rendered it impossible for their descendants to appreciate those
truths without prejudice or compromise.
We may conceive then of these Nebi’im, these prophets, as
enthusiasts for Jehovah and for Israel. For Jehovah-if today we see
men cast by the adoration of the despot-deity of Islam into
transports so excessive that they lose all consciousness of earthly
things and fall into a trance, can we not imagine a like effect
produced on the same sensitive natures of the East by the
contemplation of such a God as Jehovah, so mighty in earth and
heaven, so faithful to His people, so full of grace? Was not such an
ecstasy of worship most likely to be born of the individual’s ardent
devotion in the hour of the nation’s despair? {Cf. Deu 28:34} Of
course there would be swept up by such. a movement all the more
volatile and unbalanced minds of the day-as these always have been
swept up by any powerful religious excitement-but that is not to
discredit the sincerity of the main volume of the feeling nor its
authenticity as a work of the Spirit of God, as the impression of
the character and power of Jehovah.
But these ecstatics were also enthusiasts for Israel; and this saved
the movement from morbidness. They worshipped God neither out of
sheer physical sympathy with nature, like the Phoenician devotees of
Adonis or the Greek Bacchantes; nor out of terror at the approaching
end of, all things, like some of the ecstatic sects of the Middle
Ages; nor out of a selfish passion for their own salvation, like so
many a modern Christian fanatic; but in sympathy with their nation’s
aspirations for freedom and her whole political life. They were
enthusiasts for their people. The ecstatic prophet was not confined
to his body nor to nature for the impulses of Deity. Israel was, his
body, his atmosphere, his universe. Through it all he felt the
thrill of Deity. Confine religion to the personal, it grows rancid,
morbid. Wed it to patriotism, it lives in the open air and its blood
is pure. So in days of national danger the Nebi’im would be inspired
like Saul to battle for their country’s freedom; in more settled
times they would be lifted to the responsibilities of educating the
people, counseling the governors, and preserving the national
traditions. This is what actually took place. After the critical
period of Saul’s time has passed, the prophets still remain
enthusiasts; but they are enthusiasts for affairs. They counsel and
they rebuke David. {2Sa 12:1 ff.} They warn Rehoboam, and they
excite Northern Israel to revolt. {1Ki 11:29; 1Ki 12:22} They
overthrow and they set up dynasties. {1Ki 14:2; 1Ki 7:11; 1Ki 19:15
ff} They offer the king advice on campaigns. {1Ki 22:5 2Ki 2:11 ff}
Like Elijah, they take up against the throne the cause of the
oppressed; {1Ki 21:1 ff} like Elisha, they stand by the throne its
most trusted counselors in peace and war. {2Ki 6:1-8, etc.} That all
this is no new order of prophecy in Israel, but the developed form
of the ecstasy of Samuel’s day, is plain from the continuance of the
name Nebi’im and from these two facts besides: that the ecstasy
survives and that the prophets still live in communities. The
greatest figures of the period, Elijah and Elisha, have upon them
"the hand of the Lord," as the influence is now called: Elijah when
he runs before Ahab’s chariot across Esdraelon, Elisha when by music
he induces upon himself the prophetic mood. {2Ki 3:15} Another
ecstatic figure is the prophet who was sent to anoint Jehu; he swept
in and he swept out again, and the soldiers called him "that mad
fellow."
But the roving bands had settled down into more or less stationary
communities, who partly lived by agriculture and partly by the alms
of the people or the endowments of the crown (1Ki 18:4; 1Ki 18:19;
2Ki 2:3, 2Ki 4:38-44; 2Ki 5:20 ff.; 2Ki 6:1 ff.; 2Ki 8:8 f., etc.).
Their centers were either the centers of national worship, like
Bethel and Gilgal, or the centers of government, like Samaria, where
the dynasty of Omri supported prophets both of Baal and of Jehovah.
{2Ki 18:19; 2Ki 22:6} They were called prophets, but also "sons of
the prophets," the latter name not because their office was
hereditary, but by the Oriental fashion of designating every member
of a guild as the son of the guild. In many, cases the son may have
succeeded his father; but the ranks could be recruited from outside,
as we see in the case of-the young farmer Elisha, whom Elijah
anointed at the plough. They probably all wore the mantle which is
distinctive of some of them, the mantle of hair, or skin of a beast.
The risks of degeneration, to which this order of prophecy was
liable, arose both from its ecstatic temper and from its connection
with public affairs.
Religious ecstasy is always dangerous to the moral and intellectual
interests of religion. The largest prophetic figures of the period,
though they feel the ecstasy, attain their greatness by rising
superior to it. Elijah’s raptures are impressive; but nobler are his
defense of Naboth and his denunciation of Ahab. And so Elisha’s
inducement of the prophetic mood by music is the least attractive
element in his career: his greatness lies in his combination of the
care of souls with political insight and vigilance for the national
interests. Doubtless there were many of the sons of the prophets who
with smaller abilities cultivated a religion as rational and moral.
But for the herd ecstasy would be everything. It was so easily
induced or imitated that much of it cannot have been genuine. Even
where the feeling was at first sincere we can understand how readily
it became morbid; how fatally it might fall into sympathy with that
drunkenness from wine and that sexual passion which Israel saw
already cultivated as worship by the surrounding Canaanites. We must
feel these dangers of ecstasy if we would understand why Amos cut
himself off from the Nebi’im, and why Hosea laid such emphasis on
the moral and intellectual sides of religion: "My people perish for
lack of knowledge." Hosea indeed considered the degeneracy of
ecstasy as a judgment:
"the prophet is a fool, the man of the spirit is mad - for the
multitude of thine iniquity." {Hos 9:7} A later age derided the
ecstatics, and took one of the forms of the verb "to prophesy" as
equivalent to the verb "to be mad."
But temptations as gross beset the prophet from that which should
have been the discipline of his ecstasy-his connection with public
affairs. Only some prophets were brave rebukers of the king and the
people. The herd which fed at the royal table-four hundred under
Ahab-were flatterers, who could not tell the truth, who said Peace,
peace, when there was no peace. These were false prophets. Yet it is
curious that the very early narrative which describes them {1 Kings
22} does not impute their falsehood to any base motives of their
own, but to the direct inspiration of God, who sent forth a lying
spirit upon them. So great was the reverence still for the "man of
the spirit"! Rather than doubt his inspiration, they held his very
lies to be inspired. One does not of course mean that these
consenting prophets were conscious liars; but that their dependence
on the king, their servile habits of speech, disabled them from
seeing the truth. Subserviency to the powerful was their great
temptation. In the story of Balaam we see confessed the base
instinct that he who paid the prophet should have the word of the
prophet in his favor. In Israel prophecy went through exactly the
same struggle between the claims of its God and the claims of its
patrons. Nor were those patrons always the rich. The bulk of the
prophets were dependent on the charitable gifts of the common
people, and in this we may find reason for that subjection of so
many of them to the vulgar ideals of the national destiny, to signs
of which we are pointed by Amos. The priest at Bethel only reflects
public opinion when he takes for granted that the prophet is a
thoroughly mercenary character: "Seer, get thee gone to the land of
Judah: eat there thy bread, and play the prophet there!" {Amo 7:12}
No wonder Amos separates himself from such hireling craftsmen!
Such was the course of prophecy up to Elisha, and the borders of the
eighth century. We have seen how even for the ancient prophet, mere
soothsayer though we might regard him in respect of the rude
instruments of his office, there were present moral opportunities of
the highest kind, from which, if he only proved true to them, we
cannot conceive the Spirit of God to have been absent. In early
Israel we are sure that the Spirit did meet such strong and pure
characters, from Moses to Samuel, creating by their means the nation
of Israel, welding it to, a unity, which was not only political but
moral-and moral to a degree not elsewhere realized in the Semitic
world. We saw how a new race of prophets arose under Samuel,
separate from the older forms of prophecy by lot and oracle,
separate, too, from the ritual as a whole; and therefore free for a
moral and spiritual advance of which the priesthood, still bound to
images and the ancient rites, proved themselves incapable. But this
new order of prophecy, besides its moral opportunities, had also its
moral perils: its ecstasy was dangerous, its connection with public
affairs was dangerous too. Again, the test was the personal
character of the prophet himself. And so once more we see raised
above the herd great personalities, who carry forward the work of
their predecessors. The results are, besides the discipline of the
monarchy and the defense of justice and the poor, the firm
establishment of Jehovah as the one and only God of Israel, and the
impression on Israel both of His omnipotent guidance of them in the
past and of a worldwide destiny, still vague but brilliant, which He
had prepared for them in the future.
This brings us to Elisha, and from Elisha there are but forty years
to Amos. During those forty years, however, there arose within
Israel a new civilization; beyond her there opened up a new world;
and with Assyria there entered the resources of Providence, a new
power. It was these three facts-the New Civilization, the New World,
and the New Power-which made the difference between Elisha and Amos,
and raised prophecy from a national to a universal religion.
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